Turkish Nationalist Revolt
The Turkish Nationalist Revolt, also known as the Kemalist Revolt, was a major conflict that occurred in Anatolia centered around the city of Ankara and the surrounding countryside. Led by war hero Mustafa Kemal Pasha, the Turkish Nationalist Movement sought to cast out foreign powers from claimed Turkish lands. Revolt The revolt initially gained traction because of the harsh terms set out by the Entente after the Great War. Many Turks feared the loss of Turkish lands amidst the peace negotiations. Entente occupation forces gradually occupied much of Anatolia throughout 1918 and 1919 after the Armistice of Mudros. Resistance began immediately as various nationalist organizations were formed, such as the Association for Defence of National Rights. Nationalist Organization The organized revolt took shape after Mustafa Kemal landed in Samsun on 19 May 1919. He set about forming an army to oppose the occupation forces and issued the Amasya Circular in June, where he claimed the independence of the country was at risk. He resigned officially from the Ottoman Army in July, which prompted the issuing of an arrest warrant. This was later elevated to a death sentence in absentia for treason in May 1920. With the Sivas Congress in September, the nationalist movement organized itself and called for new elections. The October 1919 elections resulted in a sweeping victory for the Association for Defence of National Rights in the absence of other political parties. The goals of the nationalist movement were outlined in the Misak-ı Millî, a set of decisions made by the nationalist-led Ottoman Parliament. This prompted the dissolution of the parliament by Sultan Mehmed VI in April 1920, which was preceded by the Occupation of Constantinople by Entente troops in March. The nationalists responded by forming the Grand National Assembly in Ankara. Forces loyal to the Ottoman Sultan were organized into the Caliphate Army. Escalation The formation of the Ankara government prompted further occupations by the Entente, especially by Greece. Greek territorial claims extended ambitiously across much of the Anatolian coast. These ambitions were not wholeheartedly supported by the French and British, and were vehemently opposed by the Italians, who even moved warships to intimidate the Greeks. The Italians also engaged in their own limited occupations in Antalya, but these were peaceful and largely retained the Ottoman local administrations. The Caliphate Army was initially successful, coming within striking distance of Ankara only shortly after its foundation. They later experienced setbacks that prompted increased support from the British in the absence of resources for a British intervention. The French Army also experienced setbacks. French forces were forced to retreat under repeated assaults by the nationalists in various cities. French occupation authorities were not totally committed to engaging in combat against the nationalists and sought to distance themselves from the struggle. Demise Treaty of Sèvres By this point the German Revolution was well underway, and priorities among the British and French had begun to shift. Bolshevik support for the nationalists proved particularly alarming to the British and French and brought forth the possibility of a Bolshevik-aligned Turkey. By retreating on some of the more harsh terms in the treaty negotiations, the British and French negotiators sought to undermine support for the nationalists. The process took months and eventually concluded on 10 August with the Treaty of Sèvres. The Misak-ı Millî influenced the terms. The important terms of the treaty were the following: * The Bosphorus and Dardanelles Straits would be demilitarized and subject to free trade terms. Constantinople and the straits would remain under Ottoman territorial sovereignty. Entente occupation forces would be withdrawn. * Eastern Thrace, excluding Constantinople and the straits territories, would be placed under Greek administration pending a referendum, along with the islands of Imbros and Tenedos. It would be demilitarized until the conclusion of the demilitarization of Constantinople and the straits. * Izmir would be granted a special autonomous status under a Christian governor pending a referendum. Greek occupation forces would be withdrawn while a demilitarized Greek zone of influence would be established. * Kars and Ardahan would be placed under Ottoman administration and granted a special autonomous status with protections for Armenians pending a referendum. Armenian forces would be withdrawn. The Ottoman Sultanate would recognize the independence of Armenia. * Batum would be annexed by the Ottoman Sultanate. A British zone of influence would be established with control of port facilities. * Kurdistan, including the Mosul Vilayet, would receive a special autonomous status with elements of self-governance. Kurdish territories would remain legally a part of the Ottoman Sultanate, while the territories of the autonomous government within the Ottoman Sultanate would be negotiated at a later date. * Italy would withdraw from Anatolia in exchange for the recognition of Italian sovereignty over the Dodecanese, which had been captured in the Italo-Turkish War of 1911. * The Ottoman Sultanate would recognize the French and British claims over Arab lands, as well as the independence of Hejaz. * The Ottoman Sultanate would reduce its army to a maximum of 75,000 troops, and restrictions would be imposed on the navy. The treaty additionally came with some economic terms, though much more limited in nature than in previous drafts. The terms were opposed by Greece due to its relatively limited territorial guarantees. This prompted tensions between Greece and the rest of the Entente, and the state of the Greek occupations was left uncertain. However, in November the Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos lost the elections and was replaced. He had been the architect of the Greek ambitions in Anatolia. Victorious opposition leader Dimitrios Gounaris promised a withdrawal during the electoral campaign. Although he would not take office until March 1921, the political shift prompted new policy in regards to Anatolia. Collapse of the Nationalists These terms were also met with opposition from the nationalists, who viewed the genuineness of the terms with suspicion. However, the situation proved effective as propaganda for those loyal to the Ottoman government. Turkish religious figures largely rallied behind the Sultan and opposed the nationalists. The situation gave a much needed boost to the Caliphate Army, which had in various past instances proved to be questionable in its loyalties. The nationalists were forced to the negotiation table. The first round of negotiations between the Ankara government and the Entente took place in October. However, the position of the Greeks at the time complicated the situation, and their willingness to follow through with Sèvres was put into serious question. Greek forces remained in Western Anatolia despite the promise of a withdrawal per the treaty terms. The negotiations fell apart, and the priorities of the French and British governments soon shifted to the Treaty of Aachen. -wip- Aftermath Category:Conflicts